Young Andreá was so regular in the discharge of his military duties, that in time he was made a corporal; and when, long after, he became marshal of France, be spoke of the superior satisfaction he had derived from this first promotion. In a few years he was made serjeant, then adjutant; but he could not obtain a sub-lieutenant's commission. Under the old system -- a system which had nearly destroyed the military spirit of the kingdom -- epaulettes were not awarded to merit, unaided by birth or patronage. After fourteen years' service he ceased to hope, left the army in disgust (1789), married, and settled in his native city. But the spirit-stirring events of the revolution recalled him to the sphere he had abandoned. The privates were allowed to choose their officers; and his advancement was astonishingly rapid. He rose to be general of division in 1793; and had by this time established a high character for skill as well as bravery.

His history now began to be inseparable from that of Napoleon. He was present at every action of note in Italy; and so effectual was his co-operation with the commander-in-chief throughout these stupendous campaigns, that on one occasion the latter wrote to him, "Your corps is stronger than those of the other generals; your own services are equivalent to six thousand men, and should be reckoned as such." Massena was selected to convey to Paris the ratification of the peace concluded with the Austrian emperor; and his reception by the Directory was in the highest degree flattering.

Under the pretext of avenging the assassination of General Duphat, but in reality to annihilate the papal power, the republican forces had taken possession of Rome. The government had for some months remained with Berthier, but the conflicting passions of that city required a firmer hand to govern them, and Massena was despatched thither. His mission, however, proved any thing but agreeable to the French soldiery in Rome. Of all the officers in the army, he was the most unpopular with the men. His avarice was unsatiable; he plundered not only the conquered inhabitants, but the troops he commanded. Not a garment, not a cup of wine, not a mouthful of food could reach the private soldier, without paying a tax to his rapacity. He had his agents in every regiment to claim what he called his due, and these fulfilled their charge with a fidelity which covered him with execration. Complaints were frequent and loud, but for the most part ineffectual. At a later period, indeed, Napoleon, in plain terms, offered him two millions of francs if he would forego his favourite system of peculation. Massena received the money, and soon resumed the same odious course.* In any other general, this would have been unpardonable; but his military talents gave him complete impunity. On his approach to Rome, he learned that the officers had assembled in the Pantheon, and signed an address to him, in which they insisted on the suppression of this plundering system; and this address was presented to him as he entered the city. Furious at this presumption, he commanded all who had put their names to the paper to leave Rome the following day. Not one obeyed him. He perceived that his authority was no longer recognized, resigned his command to the next senior general (Dallemond), and returned to Paris. The delinquents were too numerous to fear either his vengeance or that of the Directory.
 

* On one occasion, however, the emperor punished him in this way. He was not dispossessed of the command which he had so greatly disgraced; he was not stripped by a judicial sentence of his infamous gains, but Napoleon drew a bill on Massena's banker for two or three millions of francs, to be provided for from the funds of the general. The banker dared not refuse the imperial order, nor did he like to honour it without the authority of Massena. "Pay the money," said the despot, "and let him refuse to give you credit for it if he dare!" Massena, of course, allowed the item without making the least demur.

During the absence of Buonaparte in Egypt, Massena was employed chiefly on the eastern frontiers of France. He had the direction of two great armies -- that of the Danube and the Helvetian -- so that his command extended from the Iser to Dusseldorf. But the tide of victory had turned; and while Suwarrof swept his brother generals from the face of Italy, he himself was so severely handled by the Arch-duke Charles, as to be alarmed lest France itself should be invaded on the side of Switzerland. Fortunately for him, a misunderstanding arose between the allied generals, and enabled him to gain a considerable advantage over one of the wings of the Austro-Russian army at Zurich. Had more unanimity subsisted among the allies, -- had Suwarrof not been thwarted in his purposes, the Russian and Austrian legions would probably have entered Paris fifteen years before the abdication of Fontainebleau.

The return of Napoleon changed the scene. While he crossed the Alps, Massena was charged to defend Genoa, which was invested by the Austrians, and blockaded by the English. This general made some desperate sallies, in one of which he was successful, in another most unfortunate. At length he capitulated, but not until the provisions were exhausted, and the inhabitants rose in a body to insist on a surrender. He had the additional mortification to find that had he held out a few hours longer, the victor of Marengo would have hastened to his relief. The next three or four years were passed by the general either at Paris or at the magnificent chateau of Ruel, built by Cardinal Richelieu, which his plunder had enabled him to purchase. A republican by principle, he was not fond of appearing at the court of the first consul; and at the meetings of the Legislative Body, of which he was now a member, he was more inclined to oppose than to support the measures of government. There is no doubt that he disliked Buonaparte, by whom he was disliked in return; but policy taught both to dissemble; and Massena, at length sinking all his theories and scruples, became Marshal of France, on the same day that Napoleon proclaimed himself emperor.

In the Austrian war of 1805, the new marshal was intrusted with the defence of Italy, which was invaded by the Archduke Charles. As his forces were superior in number to those of his rival -- so at least they are said to have been by all but the French themselves -- he lost no time in assuming the offensive. In October he forced the passage of the Adige at Verona, and occupied the town of St. Michael. When he learned the capitulation of Ulm, he resolved on a bolder movement -- that of assailing the whole Austrian line, which was strongly posted near Caldiero; and though the enemy fought nobly under the eye of their favourite commander, he completely succeeded. The Archduke was routed with great loss, and driven out of Italy. Then followed the peace of Presburg, which afforded Napoleon an opportunity of wresting Naples from the feeble hands of Ferdinand IV., and transferring it to those of his brother.

In 1806, Massena accompanied Joseph Buonaparte in the march to Naples, and directed the operations of the whole army. But little opposition was made: with the exception of those who dwelt in the rugged fastnesses of Calabria, the inhabitants tamely submitted to the invaders. As Lord Nelson had observed of them on a previous occasion, "They did not lose much honour, for God knows they had not much to lose--but they lost what little they had!"

1807.] From Naples Massena was summoned to the grand army then opposed to the Russians in Poland. He reached Osterode just after the battle of Eylau, and was immediately placed over the right wing, which he commanded with his usual skill and courage. At the close of the campaign, he was made Duke of Rivoli, and presented with a considerable sum for the better support of his new dignity. This proof of favour somewhat surprised those who were aware of the coldness that had so long subsisted between him and Napoleon: but the emperor, finding more obstinate enemies than he had expected, was now anxious to bind this great officer effectually to his interests.

The new duke now appeared at court; but he soon became disgusted with it. Etiquette he despised; the amusements of the palace he felt to be the dullest things imaginable; and flattery he had never learned to practise. One day, while hunting with Berthier and a numerous party of officers, a portion of small shot from the gun of the grand huntsman accidentally penetrated his left eye, and destroyed its vision for ever. Massena had exposed his person in fifty fields of battle, and had had many horses shot under him. But this was the first time he was wounded:--

        "Fate steals along with silent tread,
         Found oftenest in what least we dread;
         The earthquake may be bid to spare
         The man that's strangled by a hair."

In the campaign of 1809, Massena commenced his brilliant services by falling on the Austrian flank at Pfaffenhausen. At Landshut and Eckmuhl he ably supported the emperor; but it was at Ebersberg, where he fought alone, that he displayed the full audacity of his temper. This is a village with a strong castle, situated on the precipitous and rocky margin of the Traun, and from its position towards the river deemed impregnable. It might well appear so to the French, defended as it was by more than thirty thousand men, and a formidable train of artillery; and being accessible only by one bridge. The impetuous marshal, however, stormed and took it, in a manner which astonished Napoleon himself.

The villages of Asperne and Essling occupy two extremities of a plain on the banks of the Danube. Both were in possession of the French when the Austrians advanced to the attack, May 21st, and a sanguinary struggle ensued, which lasted till nightfall. Next day, the marshal, at the head of a small force, conducted the defence of Asperne. The village was soon on fire, and every avenue choked with the dead: the market-place, the church, the steeple, every house, every corner, every burning ruin was taken and retaken several times in succession. All his aides-de-camp were wounded or killed, but though he was ever in the front, neither fire, ball, nor sword touched him. To his obstinate resistance, more than to any other cause, did that portion of the French army which lay on this side the Danube owe its preservation. His new title, Prince of Essling -- it should rather have been of Asperne -- showed the sense which the emperor entertained of this splendid service. Well might Napoleon say, while leaning on the shoulder of Massena, Behold my right arm!

While superintending one of the numerous operations undertaken on the banks of the same river (in the vicinity of which the French remained about forty days), the marshal's horse stumbled, and brought him suddenly to the ground. The accident injured him so much, that he could not sit on horseback for some time afterwards. In all the battles which followed, he appeared on the field at the head of his corps, in a calash. His state of health was considered so precarious, that he was everywhere accompanied by a gentleman of the medical staff, even in the thickest of the fight. The agitation of this doctor, as the balls flew around the calash, was amusing to the veteran. In this way he fought at Engedorff and Wagram, at Kornenburg, Stokeren, Hellebrun, Schongraben, Gartendorff, and Znaim. At the last of these places, the struggle was obstinate, and success long doubtful. Resolving to head the attack against a corps of Hungarian grenadiers, the marshal insisted on being placed on horseback; and the moment after he had left the vehicle, a cannon ball pierced it in the very place be had occupied.

The Prince of Essling, on his return to Paris, did not witness without dissatisfaction the disgrace of Josephine, with whom he had always lived on terms of great intimacy: respecting her for her kindness of disposition, her talents, and, above all, for her readiness to remove the suspicions which her husband often entertained of his best servants. Henceforth he appeared at court even less frequently than before.

In 1810, "the favoured child of victory" -- such was the distinction awarded to the Prince of Essling by the emperor himself -- was charged with the commission to "drive Wellington into the sea." He repaired to the Peninsula, and taking the command of an army full 80,000 strong, opened his campaign by investing Ciudad Rodrigo, one of the keys of Portugal. The garrison mustered little more than four thousand, yet the place was not reduced until it had sustained a vigorous siege of three months. To be so long detained before a fortress, defended by so trifling a number, was sufficiently galling; but he took care in his despatches to represent the garrison at about three times its actual amount. Of his own loss he says not a word; but the Spaniards did not probably overstate it at three thousand four hundred. Still less does he mention another circumstance which must cover his name with infamy. He promised that the garrison should march out with all the honours of war; yet he made them all prisoners! He promised to respect the liberty and property of the inhabitants: and he shut up the junta in foul dungeons, confined the clergy in the church of St. Juan, and levied a heavy contribution on the city.

Almeida, next to Elvas the strongest place in Portugal, was next invested; and the explosion of the powder magazines, which destroyed a considerable number of the garrison, soon led to its surrender. Perhaps it might have held out much longer, had the garrison (consisting entirely of natives) shewn as much heroism as that of Ciudad Rodrigo. Massena now pursued Wellington, whose troops were greatly inferior in number, and half of them Portuguese, on whom he could not at this period rely. Wellington could not afford to risk his men on the doubtful chance of a battle, -- not even if assured of victory. His supplies were far distant, while those of the marshal were near at hand. Hence he retreated, slowly and in perfect order, towards Torres Vedras. On one occasion, and but one, Massena ventured to interrupt this retrograde movement. This was on the heights of Busaco, where, without making any impression on the English and Portuguese, he lost two thousand killed, and a far greater number wounded. After this specimen of the spirit which animated the retreating army, he was in no hurry to renew the experiment. Still the enemy was retreating, -- he hoped to the ships which were lying in the Tagus. As he advanced he found a desert: the Portuguese almost everywhere retired with whatever they could carry off. He persevered in the expectation of soon occupying the capital; but what was his surprise on finding that the allies had suddenly halted and waited for him to do his worst! They occupied a position of which he had never heard, but to which their general had always determined to retreat, in case he should be assailed by an unequal force. He reconnoitred the works, and was at once convinced, that an attack here would be much more fatal to him than that of Busaco. His rage knew no bounds: his situation was, in truth, critical. Not only were select bands of the allies hovering about his flanks, but the peasantry had risen in his rear, breathing vengeance for the excesses he had committed in his march. The course of that march might be traced in smoke and ruins, -- Massena's revenge, no doubt, for the patriotic flight of the people, and their careful removal of all provisions; and the stragglers who fell into his hands had either been put to death, or to tortures worse than death. His communications with Spain were cut off: before him lay an enemy whom he durst not assail: small but resolute bands of guerrillas, from time to time, annoyed his men. This harassing kind of warfare, the approach of famine, the progress of sickness, the fear that Wellington might soon be reinforced so as to act on the offensive, made him desirous of striking a bold blow, if possible, to retrieve his fortunes. He tried to lure the English general from his lines, but in vain. He threatened to carry the war over the Tagus -- to extend his flanks towards Oporto; but all these demonstrations had been foreseen, and were foiled with scarcely an effort. Mortified beyond expression, he was forced to retreat to Santarem, where he hoped to maintain himself until the reinforcements for which he had written should arrive. Wellington now pursued Massena in his turn; and after remaining a few days at Santarem, the marshal became convinced, that if he wished to save the remnant of a diminished. and sickly army, he must continue his retreat into Spain.

"This celebrated movement, decisive of the fate of the campaign, commenced (says Sir W. Scott) upon the 4th of March. There are two different points in which Massena's conduct may be regarded, and they differ as light and darkness. If it be considered in the capacity of that of a human being, the indignant reader, were we to detail the horrors he permitted his soldiers to perpetrate, would almost deny his title to the name. It is a vulgar superstition that when the enemy of mankind is invoked and appears, he destroys in his retreat, the building which has witnessed the apparition. It seemed as if the French, in1eaving Portugal, were determined that ruins alone should remain to shew that they had once been there. Military license was let loose in its most odious and frightful shape, and the crimes which were committed embraced all that is horrible to humanity. But if a curtain is dropped on these horrors, and Massena is regarded merely as a military leader, his retreat, perhaps, did him as much honour as any of the great achievements which formerly had made his name famous. If he had been rightly called Fortune's Favourite, he now shewed that his reputation did not depend on her smile, but could be maintained by his own talents, while she shone on other banners. In retreating through the north of Portugal, a rugged and mountainous country, be was followed by Lord Wellington, who allowed him not a moment's respite. The movements of the troops, to those who understood and had the calmness to consider them, were as regular consequences of each other, as occur in the game of chess." *

* Scott's Napoleon, vol. vii. p. 136.

None were more ready than Wellington himself, to express high admiration of Massena's masterly retreat. It must not, however, be forgotten, that the glory was divided with Marshal Ney. That heroic captain commanded in the rear, until the French were beyond the reach of danger; and to him was in a great measure owing their escape from utter destruction. Massena himself was disgusted and dispirited: Ney and he quarrelled; and after a few unimportant movements, in which no good fortune attended him, he insisted on his recall.

Notwithstanding his audaciously lying bulletins, the emperor discovered that he had lost half of a fine army, without inflicting any injury on the enemy; and in consequence, Massena was not permitted to take part in the Russian expedition, though he solicited the honour with eagerness. During 1812 he remained in Provence with the eighth military division; nor were his services ever again required to support the sinking fortunes of the emperor. Thus deeply had Napoleon been offended with the disastrous result of the Portuguese campaign.

On the restoration of Louis XVIII., Massena was confirmed in his command, and he was at Toulon, when Napoleon disembarked at Cannes. "Prince," wrote the emperor, "hoist the banner of Essling on the walls of Toulon, and follow me!" The marshal hesitated; he felt indignant at the affronts to which Buonaparte had subjected him, and no less so at the little consideration he had received from the Bourbons. He appears to have watched the event with indifference; and did not hoist the tri-coloured flag at Toulon, until Bordeaux, Thoulouse, Montpellier, and most other places, had given him the example -- until, in fact, the royal cause was desperate.

During the Hundred Days, the prince took no part in the military preparations of Napoleon. After the second abdication, and before the arrival of Louis, he was intrusted with the command of the Parisian National Guard; but he conducted himself in this situation with coldness and indecision, and, soon after witnessing the second return of the royal family, retired for ever from the busy world. He died April 4, 1817. His funeral was magnificently attended. Over his tomb in the cemetery of Est, is an obelisk of white marble, bearing the inscription, MASSENA. Round his grave rest the remains of many French officers, who were his companions in life, and who appear as if they acknowledged his superiority in death.

"Massena," said Napoleon at St. Helena, "was a superior man: he was eminently noble and brilliant, when surrounded by the fire and disorder of battle. The sound of the guns cleared his ideas, and gave him understanding, penetration, and cheerfulness. . . . He was possessed of rare courage, and of remarkable obstinacy, and his talents seemed to increase whenever danger was most imminent. When defeated, he was always as ready to renew the contest as if he had been the victor." If lie did not on all occasions exhibit the romantic valour of a Ney, a Murat, or a Lannes, he was superior not only to them, but to every marshal of France, in comprehensiveness of views, and in the formation of those intricate combinations, on which the fate of battles generally depends. He stood next to his master as a commander in chief. The vices which sullied his character were abominable: he was avaricious, rapacious, cruel, and mean.

The Prince of Essling has left a son, the heir of his riches and titles.