ALL the machines uƒed with gunpowder were at firƒt called cannon, or bombards; 1 but this cuƒtom has long ƒince been changed. That which is now called a cannon, is a fire-arm of braƒs or iron, long and round, concave within, and thicker at the end oppoƒite to its opening than at the opening, which is called its mouth.
        It's principal parts are (Plate I., Fig. 1),
        1ƒt, The breech a, and its button, or caƒcabel; the breech is the ƒolid metal from the bottom of the concave part to the caƒcabel, which is the extremity of the cannon oppoƒite to its mouth.
        2nd, The trunnions i ƒtand out on each ƒide like an arm, and ƒerve to ƒupport the cannon; on theƒe it may be poiƒed, and held almoƒt in equilibrio; I ƒay almoƒt, becauƒe the breech-end ought to be about the 30th part of the weight of the piece heavier than the other; as the metal is thicker at the breech than towards the mouth, the trunnions are placed nearer to that end than to the other.
        3rd, The bore, or chace, which is all the interior or concave part of the cannon; this is mark'd, in Fig. 3, by two prick'd lines.
        4th, The touch-hole ƒ, which is an aperture made near the breech, thro' the whole thickneƒs of the metal, by which the powder is fired that lies within the cannon. This hole is made in a ƒmall cavity reƒembling the inƒide of a ƒcallop ƒhell, ƒunk for that purpoƒe in the upper part of the piece.
        5th, The ears, or handles, h, (called by us Maniglions, or Dolphins,) are two rings, of the ƒame metal with the piece, placed as the trunnions, only ƒomething nearer the breech, made in the ƒhape of dolphins, ƒerpents, &c. Through theƒe is put a rope to raiƒe or move, mount or diƒmount, the cannon, which ƒuƒpended on theƒe handles ought to be in equilibrio, that is, the breech ought not to be heavier than the mouth.
2Names of other parts of the Cannon.
        b The platband and moulding of the breech.
        c The region of the touch-hole.
        d The aƒtragal of the touch-hole.
        e The firƒt renfort.
        f The platband and moulding of the firƒt renfort.
        g The ƒecond renfort.
        k The platband and moulding of the ƒecond renfort.
        l The cincture or ornament of the chace.
        m The aƒtragal of the cincture.
        n The chace.
        o The neck aƒtragal.
        p The neck with the border in tulip-work. [peculiar to the French}
        q The crown with its mouldings.
        r The mouth.
        Theƒe cannon diƒcharge, by means of gunpowder, globes or balls of iron, called bullets.
 
 

SECT. II. Of the Compoƒition of the Metal of Cannon

THE metal of which cannon are made, is a compound of copper, braƒs, and tin. The reƒpective quantities of each of theƒe, which ƒhould enter into this compoƒition, is a point not decided; every founder has his own proportions, which are peculiar to himƒelf, but the common proportion of theƒe ingredients to a quantity of metal, is one third of copper, one fourth of braƒs, and one ƒeventeenth of tin; for example, to 204 pounds of metal fit for caƒting, they put 68 pounds of copper, 52 pounds of braƒs, and 12 pounds of tin.
        With reƒpect to iron cannon, their ƒtructure is the ƒame with the other; they are not however capable of the ƒame reƒiƒtance as thoƒe of braƒs, but they coƒt much leƒs; theƒe are commonly uƒed on ƒhipboard, and on ƒome occaƒions on ƒhore.
 
 

SECT. III. Of the different Kinds of Cannon

CANNON  are of different ƒizes, in proportion to which they diƒcharge bullets of more or leƒs weight.
        Cannon were formerly made to carry a 33 pound, a 48 pound, and even a 96 pound bullet; and M. Saint Remy obƒerves, in his Memoirs, that there is ƒtill one of this laƒt ƒort in the city of Straƒburg; but the largeƒt cannon now commonly caƒt are thoƒe which carry a bullet of 24 pounds weight, and which are therefore called twenty four pounders.
        Cannon generally take their names from the weight of the bullet which they diƒcharge; thus a piece that diƒcharges a bullet of 24 pounds is called a four and twenty pounder, one that carries a bullet of 16 pounds, is called a ƒixteen pounder, and ƒo of the others.
        Cannon are alƒo diƒtinguished by the diameter of the mouth, or bore, which is generally called the calibre of the piece; ƒo if this diameter is three, four inches, &c. the cannon is ƒaid to be a piece of three, four, &c. inches calibre.
        The diameter of the bullet, or ball, ought to be about two lines (or two 12ths of an inch) at leaƒt leƒs than the bore of the piece, that it may be diƒcharged with the greater eaƒe, and not damage the piece by rubbing it too forcibly in its paƒƒage; this is called the vent of the bullet.
        When the diameter of the bullet and its weight are known, it is easy to find the weight of all bullets having the diameter given, and the diameter of all bullets, if the weight be given.  Geometry  has furniƒhed certain rules for effecting this 3 which are mention'd among the uƒes of the ƒector.
        The 24 pounders are uƒed in ƒeiges, to batter and deƒtroy fortifications; their length is 11 feet, including the length of the caƒcabel; and their weight ought to be (according to an ordinance of the 7th of October 1732) 5400 pounds or upwards; their bore is about five inches eight lines, and conƒequently the bullets they carry are about five inches six lines diameter.
        Beƒides theƒe pieces of 24 pounders, there are others, viz. 16, 12, 8, and 4 pounders.
        The 16 pounders are called demi-cannon, or culverins; their bore is 4 inches 11 lines, they carry balls of 4 inches 9 lines diameter; their length is about 10 feet 6 inches, and their weight 4200 pound at moƒt.  There are ƒome longer, and, among others, the piece called the Culverin of Nancy, from its having been caƒt in that city.  For the figure of it ƒee Plate I, Fig. 2.  It carries a ball of 18 pounds.
        It is now common to call any piece a Culverin, which is longer than other pieces of the ƒame bore.
        The twelve pounder carries bullets of 4 inches 3 lines diameter, its length is about 10 feet, and its weight 3200 pound at moƒt.
        The eight pounder is called a baƒtard or demi-cannon; its length is about 8 feet 10 inches, its weight ought to be 2100 pound at moƒt, it carries a ball of about 3 inches 10 lines diameter.
        The four pounder, Minion, or middle ƒize, ought to be 7 feet 3 inches in length, its bore is about 3 inches 2 lines, and by conƒequence the bullet it carries is no more than 3 inches diameter; the weight of this piece ought to be 1150 pound.
        Beƒides theƒe pieces, there are others ƒtill leƒs, that carry from two pounds to a quarter of a pound of ball; theƒe are called falconets, their length is about 7 feet, and their weight varies from 800 down to 150 pounds.
 
 

SECT. IV. Of the Thickneƒs and Length of  the principal Parts of Cannon

THE metal of cannon  is not equally thick in all parts, but is in ƒome meaƒure proportioned to the force of the powder which it is to reƒiƒt; at the breech, where the effort is ƒtrongeƒt, the thickneƒs of the metal is equal to the diameter of the bullet of the piece; at the first renfort, where the force begins to diminiƒh, the thickneƒs is ƒomewhat leƒs than at the breech; at the ƒecond, where the force is further diminiƒhed, the thickneƒs is leƒs than at the firƒt; and by the ƒame rule the chace has leƒs thickneƒs than the ƒecond renfort.  The thickneƒs of the chace gradually diminiƒhes from the trunnions to the mouth of the piece.  If a cannon was without caƒcabel, or button, trunnions, and mouldings, it would exactly reƒemble the fruƒtum of a cone, or a cone the ƒmall end being cut off.
        If the diameter of the ball be divided into 12 equal parts, the thickneƒs of the metal at the breech of the piece will be equal to the whole 12; to eleven at the end of the firƒt renfort, nine and an half at the end of the ƒecond , ƒeven and an half at the neck aƒtragal, the ƒame at the extremity of the chace; and at the greateƒt protuberance of the border, or moulding at the muzzle, eight and an half.
        With reƒpect to the length of the piece, if it is divided into ƒeven equal parts; from the extremity of the platband of the breech, to the extremity of the mouth, the firƒt renfort will be two of theƒe parts; the ƒecond renfort will terminate at the end of the third part, which is also the place of the trunnions; and the four remaining parts will be the length of the chace.
        The length and thickneƒs of each trunnion are equal to the diameter of the piece, and the length of the caƒcabel is two diameters of the bullet.
        All theƒe proportions have been eƒtabliƒhed by experience, which has ƒhewn, that cannon in which they were nearly obƒerved have been capable of doing good ƒervice; I ƒay nearly, becauƒe they are not kept with a geometrical exactneƒs.  The ordinance of the 7th of October 1732, obliges all founders to follow theƒe proportions.
 
 

SECT. V. Of the Carriages of Cannon

CANNON are placed on a ƒort of cart, or dray, which is called the carriage. (See Plate II. Fig. 1.)  This carriage is compoƒed of two long pieces of wood, called ƒides, or cheeks, which are made in a bending form, ƒo that (Plate II. Fig. 2.) one end of them b reƒts on the ground, and the other a is ƒupported by the axis or axle-tree of the wheels, from which it jets out about a foot.  The cheeks are join'd to each other by four pieces of wood, called croƒs-quarters or tranƒoms; the firƒt a is called the tranƒom of the chace; the ƒecond c the tranƒom of the bed; the third d the tranƒom of the ƒight; and the fourth g, which fills all the ƒpace between thoƒe parts of the cheeks that reƒt on the ground, is called the tranƒom of the lunet, or eye-hole.  In the cheeks, between the part that is oppoƒite to the tranƒom of the chace, and that which is oppoƒite to the axle-tree of the wheels of the carriage, are two ƒemicircular notches, in which the trunnions of the cannon are placed; on the firƒt tranƒoms a c d is placed a piece of wood of a proper thickneƒs, on which the breech of the cannon reƒts; this plank is called the bed of the carriage.
        When the cannon is to be carried into the field, or removed from one place to another, the limber (avant-train) or fore-carriage, is added to that part of the cheeks where the tranƒom of the Lunette is placed.  See Plate III. Fig. 1.  -- And for the plan of the fore part or limber, and the carriage to which it is fixed, ƒee Plate III. Fig. 2.4
        Beƒides the carriage now deƒcribed, which is the moƒt common, and called the wheel-carriage, there are fort-carriages, ƒea-carriages, and baƒtard-carriages, which have low ƒolid wheels, that ƒerve to move them on a rampart, or to and fro in other places of ƒmall extent.
 

SECT. VI. Of the manner of charging Cannon, and the Inƒtruments neceƒƒary for that purpoƒe.

CANNON are charged by putting down into the bottom of the bore, firƒt, a quantity of powder, one third, or one half, the weight of the ball.  This is done with an inƒtrument a (Plate III), called a ladle, which is a kind of ƒpoon, generally made of copper, fixed to the end of a ƒtaff d, which is called its handle.  Upon the powder is put in a wad of hay, preƒs'd or beat down very well with the inƒtrument e, called a rammer.  Upon this hay is put the ball, and to ƒecure it in its place, another wad of hay is well rammed down upon it.  The touch-hole of the piece is then filled with powder, from the upper part of which a little train is laid, that communicates with it.  The uƒe of this train is to prevent the exploƒion of the powder that fills the touch-hole from operating directly upon the inƒtrument uƒed to fire the piece, which in that caƒe might be forced out of the hand of the gunner; an inconvenience that is prevented by ƒetting fire to the end of the train.
        In the modern pieces, a little guttur or channel is cut, about a line deep and ƒix wide, to prevent the wind from diƒperƒing or blowing away the train; this channel reaches from the touch-hole to the ƒhield, on which is carved the king's arms.
        The cannon being pointed at the place which the bullet is intended to ƒtrike, the train is fired, and the fire immediately communicated to that in the piece; and this powder being kindled dilates ƒo as to occupy a much greater quantity of ƒpace than when in grains, and being thus dilated it makes an effort on every ƒide to force itƒelf out.  The bullet making leƒs reƒiƒtance than the ƒides of the piece upon which the powder preƒƒes at the ƒame time, is driven out by its whole force, and acquires that violent motion, the effect of which is well known to the world.
        In Plate III. all the inƒtruments neceƒƒary for charging cannon are repreƒented.  Beƒides those already deƒcribed, there is the maulkin, or ƒpunge h, which is uƒed to clean the piece after firing, and to extinguiƒh any ƒparks that may remain behind.  This is a kind of bruƒh, fix'd to the end of a ƒtaff.  To ƒpunge a piece, is to put in this inƒtrument, and with it clean well the cavity.  The Figures g and i repreƒent maulkins, or ƒpunges, of a different kind, made of ƒeepƒkins, fixt to a proper handle.
        The wad-hook l, ƒerves to draw the charge when neceƒƒary.
        The picker, or priming-iron q, ƒerves to clear the inƒide of the touch-hole, and render it fit to receive the prime, and is a kind of large iron needle.
        The lint stock m, is a long ƒtaff, to the end of which a match is faƒtened to fire the piece.
        The Chapiteau n, is a ƒort of little pent-houƒe, made by two thin pieces of board, join'd together at the top, ƒo as to form an angle of about 100 degrees; this is ƒet up over the touch-hole, to prevent the prime from being carried away by the wind, or wetted by the rain.
        All the inƒtruments above-mentioned, uƒed in charging and managing cannon, are called cannon furniture.
 

SECT. VII. Of the manner of Powder's taking fire.

A Variety of experiments, made with great care and accuracy, prove that powder, when on fire, poƒƒeƒƒes at leaƒt 4000 times more ƒpace than when in grains: 5 therefore, if we ƒuppoƒe that the quantity of powder, with which a cannon is charged, occupies one fourth of a cube foot in grains, it will, when on fire, occupy the ƒpace of 1000 cube feet, or about 4 cube fathom.  The ƒame experiments alƒo ƒhew that powder takes fire circularly, i.e. it dilates itƒelf equally round its centre.  One grain of powder, fir'd in the centre of different concentric circles, round which the grains of powder are placed, ƒhall ƒet fire to all thoƒe grains at once.
        From hence it follows that powder, when fir'd in a cannon, makes at the ƒame inƒtant an equal effort on every part of the inƒide of the piece wherein it lies, in order to extend itƒelf circularly every way.  But as the reƒiƒtance from the ƒides of the piece turns the action of the powder, ƒo as to follow te direction of the bore of the cannon, when it preƒƒes upon the bullet to throw it out, it preƒƒes alƒo on that part of the bore oppoƒite the mouth, that is, upon the breech; and this gives the piece a motion backwards, which is called its recoil.  The recoil in ƒome degree diminiƒhes the action of the powder on the bullet.  But this cannot be avoided; for if the carriages were fixt, ƒo as not to give way to this motion, the action of the powder, or the effort that cauƒes the recoil, would tear them to pieces in a very ƒhort time.
 

SECT. VIII. Of the invention of Spherical Chambers, the reaƒon why they are diƒuƒed, and of the ƒhape of the interior part or bore of cannon.

IT is evident that the greater the quantity of powder which takes fire at the ƒame inƒtant, the greater its effect will be upon the bullet.  This gave riƒe, towards the end of the laƒt century, to a new conƒtruction of the bore of cannon, by making a cavity in form of a ƒphere a little flatted.  The touch-hole being placed pretty near the middle of this cavity, which was larger than any other part of the bore, fired a greater quantity of powder at the ƒame time than if the bore had been uniform; and the powder finding itƒelf as it were bound up, and confined in this cavity, acted upon the bullet with more force and impetuoƒity than in the common pieces.
        The deƒign of this contrivance was, to throw a bullet from a piece ƒhorter, lighter, and more eaƒy of carriage than others, with the ƒame degree of force as from thoƒe before uƒed.  Experience proved, that the conƒtruction of theƒe pieces anƒwered the end propoƒed; for tho' much ƒhorter than other cannon, and charged with a leƒs quantity of powder, they produced the ƒame effect.
        But it was difficult to clean the chamber after the piece had been fired, there frequently remained ƒome ƒparks behind; ƒo that when it was neceƒƒary to fire the pieces as faƒt as poƒƒible, many cannoneers had their arms ƒhot off as they were charging them; and beƒides, as the powder, before it forced itƒelf out of the chamber, preƒs'd on all ƒides with ƒo great violence and impetuoƒity, in a very little time the carriages were broken to pieces, and render'd unƒerviceable; and, by a frequent repetition of this violent agitation, the piece acquired a very conƒiderable recoil, and the direction of the bullet became uncertain.  For theƒe reaƒons this contrivance was entirely laid aƒide, and the greateƒt number of theƒe pieces found in the arƒenals and fortifications were re-caƒt, ƒo that the cannon now uƒed have a bore of the ƒame diameter in all parts.  See the figure of a twenty-four pounder of this invention in Pl. IV, Fig. 1.
        That part of the bore of the cannon, which receives the powder it is charged with, is called the chamber; and therefore the pieces with ƒpherical or oblong cavities, were called ƒpherical-chamber pieces, and thoƒe uƒed before and ƒince that invention, are called cylindrical-bore pieces.
        We have already ƒaid that the bore of cannon is in every part of equal diameters, but it muƒt be obƒerved, that this is not ƒtrictly true at preƒent, except in 12, 8, and 4 pounders; for in 24 and 16 pounders, there is made at the bottom of the bore a little cylindrical chamber a b, which holds about two ounces of powder.  In a 24 pounder this little chamber is one inch and an half diameter, and two inches and an half in depth; and in a 16 pounder it is one inch diameter, and one inch ten lines in depth.  The pipe of the touch-hole comes into this little chamber at about 9 lines from its inmoƒt receƒs in 24 pounders, and at about 8 in 16 pounders.
        The deƒign of theƒe chambers is, to preƒerve the touch-hole, by preventing the powder the cannon is charged with, from having an immediate effect on its pipe; pieces that are leƒs than 16 pounders have not this chamber.
        Figure 2, in plate IV, repreƒents a 24 pounder divided longitudinally, and ƒhows the little chamber juƒt mentioned a b, of which fig. 3, in pl. I, exhibits the plan.
        Fig. 3, in pl. IV, is the ƒection of a 12 pounder, in which it may be obƒerv'd this chamber is wanting.
        An author, who has lately written a treatiƒe of artillery 6, which has receiv'd the recommendation of the royal academy of ƒciences, at the ƒame time that he commends theƒe little chambers for preƒerving the touch-hole, fears that they may be liable to great inconveniences on account of their not being eaƒily ƒpunged.  But nothing appears more eaƒy than to remove this inconvenience; for there needs only to add to the common maulkin, or ƒpunge, a little roll, about the ƒame length and diameter with theƒe chambers.  They might even be ƒpunged with the common ƒpunge, which will clean the entrance and part of the cavity of theƒe little chambers, theƒe being narrower at their opening into the bore of the piece than in the middle, and therefore the metal next the opening may eaƒily ƒtop and retain ƒome little particles of fire in the ƒpherical concave; but our new little chambers, which form a ƒmall canal entirely uniform and cylindrical, are not liable to produce the ƒame accidents.
        The adoption of this little chamber into its artillery by France is a further proof of its excellence; for it may be preƒumed we ƒhould not have adopted it, without knowing its advantage by experience, which in theƒe matters ought to over-rule all theoretical concluƒions.
        The extremity of the bore, next the breech, is in all pieces rounded by an arch, the radius of which is about the 4th of the calibre of the bore.  This rounding renders it more eaƒily and more perfectly ƒpunged; it alƒo augments the ƒtrength of the metal towards the breech and touch-hole.  In 12 pounders the pipe of the touch-hole enters the bore at 8 lines from the bottom, in 8 pounders at 7 lines, and in 4 pounders at 6.
 

SECT. IX. Of the manner of pointing Cannon.

TO direct or point cannon towards the place you would ƒtrike with the bullet, the breech muƒt be raiƒed by means of a wedge, or coin o, which is placed under it on the bed of the carriage, and is called the aiming wedge.
        This wedge, by being driven under the breech, raiƒes it up, and lowers the mouth, which is therefore to be done till the piece lies in the direction deƒired.  When the piece is to be aimed from any conƒiderable height to a place much beneath it, two or three of theƒe wedges are made uƒe of, laid one on another.
 Cannon being heavier toward the breech than mouth, and making in ƒhape a kind of fruƒtum of a cone, a line ƒuppoƒed to paƒs from end to end thro' the middle of the bore, as a h, will not be parallel to the upper part of the piece c g; therefore if a piece be levelled by a continuation of the line c g, the bullet, inƒtead of paƒƒing in that direction to d, will go to b the continuation of the line a h; that is, it will go higher than the point to which it was levelled.  To remove this inconveniency, there muƒt be placed on the chace, near the muzzle, a piece of wood x, concave on one ƒide, that it may anƒwer the convexity of the cannon, ƒo as to lie firm, its top being juƒt as high above the piece, as the metal is thicker at the breech than at the mouth.  This is called the ƒight-piece, and ƒerves, by guiding the eye, to diƒcharge the bullet in the direction deƒired.  By its help the line of ƒight becomes parallel to the line ƒuppoƒed to paƒs through the middle of the bore, that is, parallel to the line the bullet ought to deƒcribe, ƒupposing it to move in a right line.  So that levelling the upper part of the breech, and the upper part of the ƒight, with a given point, the bullet diƒcharged in that direction will be carried towards that point, only lower juƒt the ƒemidiameter of the cannon at its breech.  Therefore, if a piece be levelled to a point half the diameter of the breech higher, the bullet will ƒtrike preciƒely the point intended to be hit.  But this muƒt be underƒtood excluƒive of all the accidents that may, and that in practice actually do, vary the direction of the bullet.
 

SECT. X. Of the different ranges of Cannon.

IT has been ƒaid above, that the bullet is ƒupposed in its paƒƒage to deƒcribe a right line, but, ƒtrictly ƒpeaking, it does not, becauƒe its weight inclines it to the earth every inƒtant of its motion.  But as at the time of its firƒt coming out of the piece its motion is very rapid, the weight does not ƒenƒibly affect it 7 in the firƒt inƒtants of its motion; ƒo that the line it then deƒcribes is apparently ƒtraight, and the extent of this line is called the point blank range of the piece.  This range may be defined, the extent of the apparent right line deƒcribed by a bullet diƒcharged from a cannon.  This point blank range is much leƒs than the greateƒt range, or random ƒhot, of the piece; but the cannon cannot be levelled, or, as it is generally expreƒƒed, pointed, at an object intended to be hit, if the object is not within the diƒtance of the point blank range: for beyond that the ƒtroke is very uncertain.
        Thus cannon have two different ƒhots; the firƒt called their point blank ƒhot, juƒt above deƒcribed; the ƒecond, their random ƒhot.  A piece is ƒaid to fire at random ƒhot, when the breech reƒts upon the bed of the carriage, and makes pretty near an angle of 45 degrees with the horizon.  In this ƒituation of the piece the bullet falls at the greateƒt poƒƒible diƒtance the force it is thrown out with can carry it to; but as in this caƒe it cannot be directed to any determinate object, a piece is never fired thus, but at a company of men, or a place where it cannot fail of doing miƒchief to the perƒons poƒted in it when it falls.
        Two experiments have been made to examine and aƒcertain the ranges of different pieces of cannon, the reƒult of which is, that their point-blank ƒhot is about 300 fathom.
        M. St. Remy, in his Memoirs, mentions ƒeveral experiments made by M. Du Metz, lieutenant general of the king's forces, and lieutenant of the artillery in Flanders, by which, the pieces being fired at random ƒhot, and charged with two thirds of powder of the weight of the bullet, it appeared
 

	fathom
That a 24 pounder carried	2250
16    --    --     --	2020
12    --    --     --	1870
8    --    --     --	1660
4    --    --     --	1520

        With what care ƒoever theƒe experiments  are made, ƒo many different things concur to augment or diminiƒh the diƒtance of the ƒhot, that this account cannot be abƒolutely depended upon, but ƒhould only be regarded as giving pretty nearly the extent of the ƒhot.
 

SECT. XI. Of the Ricochet 8, or rolling and bounding ƒhot.

BEƒides the two ƒorts of ƒhot just mentioned, there is the Ricochet, invented by monƒieur the marƒhal de Vauban, and uƒed by him in 1697 at the ƒeige of Aeth.
        To fire a piece by way of the ricochet, is only to charge the cannon with no more powder than is ƒufficient to carry the bullet along the face of the works attacked.  The bullet diƒcharged in this manner goes rolling and bounding, killing and maiming all it meets in its courƒe, and creates much more diƒorder by going thus ƒlowly along, than it could if thrown from the piece with great violence and ƒpeed.
        The quantity of powder neceƒƒary for the ricochet is not known but by trying different quantities till the right is hit upon, which being found they continue to fire the piece with that charge.
 

SECT. XII. Of the quantity of Powder neceƒƒary for the charging CANNON

IT was the opinion of engineers, formerly, that by charging the pieces high, the bullet was thrown to a greater diƒtance; and it was their cuƒtom to charge them with two thirds, or even the whole, weight of the bullet, in order to impel it with the greater velocity, as appears by the authors who have heretofore written on the ƒubject.  But it has been diƒcovered ƒince, at leaƒt in France, that the half, or one third, of the weight of the bullet is the fitteƒt charge for the piece.
        If the whole quantity of powder with which cannon is charged could take fire at the ƒame inƒtant, it is apparent that the greater the quantity the greater the velocity communicated to the bullet; but tho' the time of its inflammation is very ƒhort, it may yet be conceived as divided into many inƒtants.  The firƒt inƒtant the powder begins to dilate and impel the bullet before it; and if it has force enough to impel it from the piece before the whole charge is inflamed, that part which is left to take fire afterwards wou'd abƒolutely produce no effect at all on the bullet.  So that a charge of extraordinary force does not accelerate the velocity of the bullet; and hence it follows that the piece ought to be charged with no greater quantity of powder, than can take fire while the bullet is paƒƒing through the chace of the piece.  This quantity may be determined by experiment; not however with great exactneƒs, becauƒe the force of the powder will conƒiderably vary, the effects of which, although produced with an equal quantity of the ƒame powder, have frequently a very ƒenƒible difference; and for this reaƒon experiments made on this occaƒion ought to be regarded but as the means of knowing nearly the quantity of powder required.
        A cannon which ƒhall be too ƒhort, and another which ƒhall be too long, will not either of them throw a bullet to the greateƒt poƒƒible diƒtance; a piece which will not give time for its whole charge of powder to take fire before it diƒcharges the bullet, diƒcharges it with only a part of the force of the powder; and in a cannon, the chace of which is too long, ƒo that the bullet cannot paƒs through the vacant cylinder before the entire inflammation of the charge, the bullet will loƒe by its friction, and the reƒiƒtance of the air, part of the force it received from the powder, and ƒo will not be thrown to the greateƒt diƒtance to which that quantity of powder would have carried it.  And indeed, as M. Belidor has obƒerved in his Courƒe of Mathematics, experience has ƒhown that the culverin of Nancy, which is longer than our pieces (it being near 22 feet) does not carry ƒo far as pieces of the common length; tho' this is contrary to the vulgar opinion, which gives this piece a much greater range.
 

SECT. XIII. Of the manner of determining the Length of Cannon, with reƒpect to a given Charge of Powder; or rather when the Length of the Piece is given, how to find the Quantity of Powder proper to give the Bullet its greateƒt poƒƒible Force.

IF the preciƒe time of the whole charge of the powder's being fired could be known, as well as how far the ball will have moved in that time, it would be eaƒy to determine the moƒt advantageous length of a piece with reƒpect to a given charge.  Though this knowledge labours under many difficulties, not only in eƒtimating the action of the powder in the ƒeveral inƒtants of its taking fire, but alƒo by the friction of the bullet in its paƒƒage through the chace of the piece, which in part diminiƒhes the effect of the powder upon it, by the reƒiƒtance of the air at its coming out of the piece, &c. yet the following is a very ƒimple method of determining this length with an exactneƒs ƒufficient for practice.
        A very long piece muƒt be provided, and fired under any given angle, with a given quantity of powder.  Examine the range of the bullet in the firƒt firing, which will be leƒs than ordinary, becauƒe the piece is longer than it ought to be; cut off two or three inches of the bore, and fire it a ƒecond time; continue thus to diminish the length of the piece at every firing, ƒo long as the range of the ƒhot increases, and when you have a range leƒs than the former, divide into two equal parts the piece laƒt cut off, and ƒubtract that half from the length of the piece at the laƒt firing but one, or add it to the length of the piece at the laƒt firing, and you will have the length of a piece, proper to throw a bullet to the greateƒt diƒtance to which this charge will carry it, determined with a ƒufficient degree of exactneƒs.  M. Bigot de Morogues propoƒes this method, which had before been directed by M. Belidor in his Courƒe of Mathematics. But at the ƒame time he obƒerves, that this experiment is ƒubject to the inconveniency of having pieces too long to manage, and remove from place to place, without great difficulty; he, therefore, thinks it better to prevent this inconvenience by adjuƒting the charge to the length, rather than the length to the charge:  And ƒuppoƒing the length of the piece aƒcertained, as, for inƒtance, that now fix'd by the ordinance juƒt mentioned, it is eaƒy to find the proper charge, by firing it ƒucceƒƒively with different quantities, and obƒerving which carries the bullet to the greateƒt diƒtance.
        In all theƒe experiments eƒpecial care muƒt be taken that the piece at every firing is exactly in the ƒame ƒituation, and charged with the ƒame powder.
        Several experiments were made at La Fere, in the month of October, 1739, to adjuƒt in this manner the charge to the piece; by which it appeared,
        That 24, 16, 12, and 8 pounders ought to be charged with no more than one third the weight of the bullet, and that with this charge they produced the greateƒt effect of which they were capable, or rather that 24 pounders require for charge 9 pounds of powder, 16 pounders 6 pounds, 12 pounders 5 pounds, and 8 pounders 3; larger charges than theƒe not in the leaƒt augmenting the flight of the bullet.
        As to the 4 pounder, its proper charge has been found to be 2 pound, that is, half the weight of its bullet.  If this piece requires a ƒtronger charge in proportion to its bullet than others, it is, ƒays M. Belidor, becauƒe it is longer than others in proportion to its bore.
 

SECT. XIV. Of the uƒe of the Wad, with which the Powder in a Piece is covered.

IT was examined, during the preceding experiments, whether the wad, or the ramming it down more or leƒs, increaƒed the flight of the ƒhot; and it appeared that the ƒame quantity of powder, whether it was covered with a wad, rammed down as uƒual, or not, always had very nearly the ƒame effect on the ball; from whence it was concluded that a wad, bigger or leƒs, or more or leƒs rammed down, contributed not at all to the force of the piece.
        The wad is neceƒƒary to keep the charge of powder together in the piece, and incloƒe it in the chamber, ƒo as to prevent its dilating, when fired, around the ƒides of the bullet by its vent, as it is paƒƒing through the bore, which would leƒƒen the action of the powder upon it; but as the wad cannot be faƒtened to the ƒides of the bore, the moment the powder takes fire, it is carried away with ƒo little reƒiƒtance, that it cannot in any degree retard the effect of the explosion, or give time for the entire inflammation of the charge.
        The reasoning may be alƒo apply'd to the wad that covers the bullet, which notwithstanding is abƒolutely neceƒƒary to prevent its rolling out when the piece is fired horizontally, or pointed downwards.
 

SECT. XV. Of the Number of Times the ƒame Cannon may be fired ƒucceƒƒively.

THE ƒame piece cannot be fired more than a certain number of times ƒucceƒƒively, becauƒe the metal, when grown very hot, is ƒofter, and its reƒiƒtance is leƒs, by which means the piece is frequently bent, and ƒometimes burƒt; the touch-hole alƒo widens, and grows ƒo large, that, by affording too much vent to the powder, its effect is greatly leƒƒened on the bullet; this aperture will even enlarge itƒelf to ƒuch a degree, that the whole force of the powder ƒhall evacuate by it, and ƒcarce act at all upon the bullet.
        It has been experienced, according to M. Remy, that a 24 pounder may be fired 90, 100, or even 120 times in 24 hours, as is uƒually done in ƒeiges, which is 5 times an hour; but great care muƒt be taken to cool, or refresh the piece, after firing 10 or 12 times.  This is done by dipping the maulkin into water, and paƒƒing it ƒeveral times up and down the bore of the piece.
        When a piece has been fired many times ƒucceƒƒively as faƒt as it could be charged, and the metal is perceived to grow hot, the charge ƒhould be diminiƒhed, becauƒe, as has been before obƒerved, the metal at this time is capable of leƒs reƒiƒtance, and may therefore be damaged by the uƒual charge.
        It may not be amiƒs to obƒerve here, that the range of cannon is greater in the morning, and at night, than at noon; and in cold than in hot weather.  The reaƒon is, that at theƒe times the air being leƒs heated, gives leƒs way to the dilation of the powder, which being by this means as it were confined to a leƒs ƒphere of action, muƒt in proportion have a ƒtronger effect.
        Many experiments at the academy of La Fere have demonƒtrated the truth of this extraordinary circumƒtance, and are recited by M. Belidor in his Bombardier Francois, and by M. Bigot de Marogues in his book De l'application des forces centrales aux effets de la poudre a Canon.
 

SECT. XVI. Of the Method taken to remedy the Widening of the Touch-hole, or, which is the ƒame thing, to put in a new Piece of Metal.

IT has been obƒerved that, for a cannon to have its total effect, the touch-hole muƒt not be too large. When through often firing this inconveniency happens, what is called an engraftment is put in. This is done by pouring a quantity of new metal into the touch-hole, ƒufficient to fill it up entirely; firƒt making the piece very hot, that the new metal, as it runs in, may the more perfectly unite with the old. When the piece is cooled, a new touch-hole is drilled in place of the old one. That this new metal, as it runs into the touch hole, may not go thro' into the bore, the piece is filled with ƒand, well rammed down, about as high as the handles.
        As it is very difficult to make the new metal, poured into the touch-hole, unite perfectly with the metal of the piece, the Chevalier de St Julien, in his book De la forge de Vulcain, propoƒes that the touch-hole be enlarged two inches quite through to the bore as uƒual, and that there be made about this aperture, at three or four inches diƒtance, four holes in four different places, in an oblique direction, ƒo as to meet and terminate about the middle of the touch-hole between the outer and inner ƒide of the metal; theƒe holes muƒt each of them be one inch in diameter at leaƒt.  There muƒt then be procured an inƒtrument of wood, not unlike a rammer, which muƒt exactly fit the bore of the piece; upon the head of this kind of rammer a hole muƒt be made half an inch deep, cut circularly, and ƒo that the bottom of it may give a ƒuperficial convex parallel to that of the outƒide; this muƒt be lined with iron of a convex form, one or two lines thick; after this 5 or 600 weight of metal muƒt be melted, the cannon well heated, and this rammer introduced into the bore; the hole at the end of it muƒt exactly anƒwer that of the touch-hole, and be placed exactly under it, the cannon being ƒo placed as that the touch-hole may be exactly perpendicular to the horizon; the metal muƒt be run into all the holes above directed to be pierced; after all theƒe are filled, and the piece is cool, the touch-hole will be perfectly cloƒed up, and capable to reƒiƒt the utmoƒt effort of any quantity of powder, the cannon may afterwards be charged with, as evidently appears from the nature of this contrivance. But to get out the rammer is now the question; in order to effect this, precaution muƒt be taken that it be made in two pieces, and then the under one being firƒt drawn out, the other will eaƒily follow. The new touch-hole is then pierced as uƒual, with an inƒtrument called a Drill, which is the reaƒon this operation is called indifferently Drilling, or boring a touch-hole.
        Different inventions have been from time to time propoƒed, to leƒƒen the action of the powder on the pipe of the touch-hole; but as they were all attended with inconveniences, the ancient manner is ƒtill preƒerved, which is, to begin to bore the touch-hole on that part of the cannon which nearly correƒponds with the end of the bore, and to continue it in an oblique direction till it comes into the bore at ƒome diƒtance from its extremity, as has been ƒaid above.
        Figures 2 and 3 in Plate IV ƒhow the diƒpoƒition of the pipe of the touch-hole c a. It is bored in the middle of a piece of fine copper of the figure of the fruƒtum of a cone inverted.
The figures above it ƒhow this piece of copper, which is diƒtinguiƒhed from the metal of the piece, by being ƒhadow'd or hach'd in a particular manner. This piece of metal contributes to preƒerve the touch-hole, by reƒiƒting the effect of the powder more forcibly than the metal of which the cannon is made.
 

SECT. XVII. Of the manner of nailing up Cannon, or ƒtopping the Touch-Hole, ƒo as to render the Piece unƒerviceable.

WHEN circumƒtances make it neceƒƒary to abandon cannon to the enemy, or the enemy's cannon are ƒeized, and it is not however poƒƒible to take them away, it is proper to nail them up, in order to render them uƒeleƒs.
        To nail up cannon, is forcibly to drive, with an heavy hammer, a large ƒteel nail into the touch-hole; when it is thus driven as far as it will go, they ƒtrike it with the hammer on one ƒide, ƒo as to break it off cloƒe to the piece, that no part of it may remain to be taken hold of, in order to draw it out. Cannon nailed up are abƒolutely uƒeleƒs, and a new touch-hole muƒt be bored, or the piece new caƒt.
        The firƒt perƒon who nailed up cannon, according to the Chevalier de Ville, was one Gaƒpar Vimercatus of Bremen, who nail'd up the artillery of Sigiƒmond Malateƒta.
        The ƒame author propoƒes (inƒtead of nails) to ƒtop the touch-hole with ƒmall flints, or river pebbles, about the ƒize of peas; and he inƒiƒts that by filling up the touch-hole with theƒe, well beat in, the piece will be more effectually nail'd up than in the common way.
        Sometimes a cannon which has been nail'd up may again be rendered ƒerviceable, without piercing a new touch-hole, by blowing out the nail which has been driven in to ƒtop it up.
        For this purpoƒe the piece muƒt be charged very high, and the charge covered with a tompion, preƒƒed very tight into the piece, which is fired by means of a fuƒe, which communicates with the charge, and comes out at the mouth of the piece. The charge of powder taking fire ƒometimes makes an effort on the nail in the touch-hole, ƒufficient to drive it out, eƒpecially if it be not clenched on the inƒide (It is clenched, when time permits, by bending or turning back the point with a rammer introduced into the bore for that purpoƒe). When the powder does not blow out the nail, a new piece of metal muƒt be inƒerted, and a new touch-hole bored, to render the piece again ƒerviceable.
        Beƒides nailing up, another method has been found of rendering a piece of cannon unƒerviceable, which is, by forcing into it a bullet of a larger caliber than that proper to the piece. The nailing up is remedied in the manner juƒt mentioned, but no expedient has been yet found to render cannon again ƒerviceable after a bullet has been driven into them, they muƒt abƒolutely be re-caƒt. This laƒt expedient is on this account preferable to the firƒt, but then it is not done in ƒo short a time.
 

SECT. XVIII. Of the red-hot Bullet.

WHEN a town is intended to be fired, or magazines of powder battered, the cannon are charged with red bullets, that is, bullets made red-hot upon an iron grate contrived for that purpoƒe, and put into the cannon with tongs, letting them fall immediately on the waddingor turf that covers the powder, and then inƒtantly firing the piece, that the bullet itƒelf may not kindle the powder, which would much leƒƒen its force. To fire a red-hot bullet it is neceƒƒary the breech of the cannon ƒhould reƒt on the bed of the carriage, becauƒe in a horizontal or inclining ƒituation the bullet might rowl in the chace of the piece, and even fall out; for it cannot be ƒecured in its place by ramming upon it a wadding of hay or turf, as other bullets are, for fear it ƒhould fire the powder during the operation. Red-hot bullets are ƒeldom fired but from 8 or 4 pounders, becauƒe getting heavier bullets into the piece would be attended with too much difficulty and trouble.
        Red-hot bullets are alƒo uƒed to be fired at ƒhips, becauƒe they may enter the powder-room, and blow up the veƒƒel.
 

SECT. XIX. Of Gargouges and Cartouches.

UPON emergencies, when it is neceƒƒary to fire the piece as faƒt as poƒƒible, inƒtruments are uƒed, called gargouges, and cartouches.
        The gargouge is a cylindrical roll, of the ƒame diameter as the bore of the piece, filled with powder to the height of about 3 ƒemi-diameters, or as far as is judged neceƒƒary to diƒcharge the bullet; this is properly the charge of powder for the piece, incloƒed in kind of caƒe of linen, paper or parchment.
        The Cartouche is alƒo a kind of caƒe, or roll, (as the gargouge) which holds the bullets, leaden balls, nails, and old iron, &c. with which the piece is to be charged; this is made of linen or tin.
        Sometimes the gargouge and cartouche are joined together, and the compound reƒulting from thence is indefinitely called the Cartouche.  The manner of uƒing theƒe, is only conveying them to the bottom of the piece, after which the cannoneer pierces them with a picker through the touch-hole, then primes and fires the piece.
        It is evident that firing with cartouches can only be uƒed with reƒpect to objects that be near, becauƒe the lead, old iron, &c, contained in the cartouche, being in ƒeparate and ƒmall pieces, have not ƒolidity enough to be thrown ƒo far as a ƒmall bullet.
        A bullet may be uƒed with the gargouge, and in that caƒe, after the piece has received part of its charge, the bullet is put in upon it, as in common charges.  The cartouche alƒo may be uƒed without the gargouge; and in that caƒe the charge of powder is rammed down as uƒual, and upon the wad that covers it is put the lead, iron, and whatever elƒe makes up the cartouche.
        All cannon which are fired, charged after any one of theƒe methods, are generally ƒaid to be fired with cartouche, and have a much greater effect than when charged with a bullet only, becauƒe the ƒhot, nails, &c, diƒperƒing as they go out of the piece, may in the ƒame inƒtant do execution in many different places.
        Cartouches of linen and paper are very dangerous, becauƒe apt to leave ƒome little ƒhreds on fire behind them in the piece, which ƒmall ƒparks are ƒufficient to fire the next cartouche that is put in, and this cannot fail to produce melancholy accidents; thoƒe of parchment are better, becauƒe they leave no fire behind them.  The ill conƒequences of the former are prevented by ƒpunging the piece, after every firing, with the maulkin dipped in water.
        The 24 and 16 pounders, which at the bottom of the bore have the ƒmall chambers already mentioned, are neither fit to be fired with cartouch, nor deƒigned for it, the common cannon only being uƒed for this purpoƒe.  The others are rather employed to deƒtroy the works and the fortifications of towns, than to fire upon parties of men; it would therefore be of very little uƒe, if they were capable of being fired with cartouches.
        There are alƒo cartouches for the musket; theƒe contain the entire charge, that is to ƒay, the whole quantity of powder and ball theƒe pieces are fired with.  When the ƒoldier makes uƒe of theƒe cartouches, he tears off that end of the cartouch which is to lie next to the touch-hole pan with his teeth, and having rammed it down to the bottom of the barrel of the musket, he has nothing to do but to prime*, and he is ready to fire.  Theƒe cartouches are commonly uƒed in engagements, to ƒhorten the time in charging.
        Beƒides bullets and cartouche ƒhot, with which it has already been ƒaid cannon are charged, two bullets chained together are ƒometimes made uƒe of.  Theƒe are principally uƒed at ƒea, becauƒe better fitted to break the maƒts and rigging than ƒingle balls, and are called chain-ƒhot (Pl. III, Fig. 2) Double-headed bullets, or bar-ƒhot, have been alƒo ƒometimes introduced in the ƒea ƒervice:  Theƒe are bullets cut into two equal parts, and joined together by a ƒmall kind of iron bar; the middle is filled with a compoƒition, and the whole covered with linen dipped in brimƒtone; the cannon in firing fires alƒo the combuƒtibles, or compoƒition of this bullet, which ƒets fire to the ƒails of the veƒƒel.  One of the heads of this bullet has an hole to receive a fuze, which communicating with the charge of the cannon ƒets fire to the bullet.
        After the cannon the moƒt conƒiderable machine, or inƒtrument, uƒed at ƒeiges, is the mortar.

The ƒeveral Parts of a Gun, as now named by our own Artillery People.

    1. The caƒcabel
    2. The caƒcabel aƒtragal
    3. The neck of the caƒcabel
    4. The breech and breech mouldings
    5. The baƒe-ring and reƒiƒtance
    6. The vent and vent-aƒtragal
    7. The charging cylinder
    8. The firƒt reinforc'd ring
    9. The firƒt reinforc'd aƒtragal
    10. The vacant cylinder
    11. The dolpins
    12. The trunnions
    13. The ƒecond reinforc'd ring
    14. The ƒecond reinforc'd aƒtragal
    15. The chace
    16. The neck aƒtragal
    17.  The neck and muzzle ring
    18. The muzzle mouldings or freeze
    19. The face of the piece
    20. The bore or concavity.
    Return to paragraph text.